The Use of Player-centered Positive Reinforcement to Schedule In-game Rewards Increases Enjoyment and Performance in a Serious Game
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v1i4.47Keywords:
serious games, enjoyment, performance, reward schedules, positive reinforcement, player-centered design,Abstract
Among the methods used to increase enjoyment and performance in serious games, reward schedules, i.e., determining when in-game rewards should be given, have not been sufficiently explored. In the present study, we designed a simple memory training serious game and compared two methods of scheduling rewards, both based on the paradigm of positive reinforcement: fixed ratio schedule, in which rewards were given after a fixed number of correct responses, and variable ratio schedule, in which rewards were given after an unpredictable number of correct responses. To account for the variability in player preference for rewards, a player-centered sub-mode was included in both schedules by adjusting the schedule ratio according to player preference for rewards. The effectiveness of this approach was tested by comparing it against two more sub-modes: one which used a predetermined ratio, and another which set the ratio to the opposite of player preference. The game was put online and tested with 210 participants. Enjoyment, performance, duration of gameplay, and likelihood to play again were significantly higher in the player-centered sub-mode than the other sub-modes. On average, the variable-ratio schedule was better in the outcome measures than the fixed-ratio schedule. The results highlight the importance of in-game rewards, and indicate that giving rewards according to a player-centered variable-ratio schedule has the potential to make serious games more effective.
References
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Reynolds G. S., "A primer of operant conditioning.(Rev ed)," 1975.
Chumbley J. and Griffiths M., "Affect and the computer game player: the effect of gender, personality, and game reinforcement structure on affective responses to computer game-play," CyberPsychology & Behavior, vol. 9, pp. 308-316, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.308
Charlton J. P., and Danforth I. D., "Distinguishing addiction and high engagement in the context of online game playing," Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 23, pp. 1531-1548, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.07.002
Siang A. C., and Rao R. K., "Theories of learning: a computer game perspective," in Multimedia Software Engineering, 2003. Proceedings. Fifth International Symposium on, 2003, pp. 239-245.
Yee N., "The psychology of massively multi-user online role-playing games: Motivations, emotional investment, relationships and problematic usage," in Avatars at work and play, ed: Springer, 2006, pp. 187-207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3898-4_9
Domínguez A., Saenz-de-Navarrete J., de-Marcos L., Fernández-Sanz L., Pagés C., and Martínez-Herráiz J.-J., "Gamifying learning experiences: Practical implications and outcomes," Computers & Education, vol. 63, pp. 380-392, 4// 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.12.020
Linehan C., Kirman B., Lawson S., and Chan G., "Practical, appropriate, empirically-validated guidelines for designing educational games," in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2011, pp. 1979-1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1978942.1979229
Charles D., Kerr A., McNeill M., McAlister M., Black M., Kcklich J., et al., "Player-centred game design: Player modelling and adaptive digital games," in Proceedings of the Digital Games Research Conference, 2005.
Fua K. C., Gupta S., Pautler D., and Farber I., "Designing serious games for elders," in 8th International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games, Chania, Crete, Greece, 2013.
Skinner B. F., Ferster C., and Ferster C. B., Schedules of reinforcement: Copley Publishing Group, 1997.
Bradshaw C. A. and Reed P., "Relationship between contingency awareness and human performance on random ratio and random interval schedules," Learning and Motivation, vol. 43, pp. 55-65, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2011.11.002
Howard-Jones P. A. and Demetriou S., "Uncertainty and engagement with learning games," Instructional Science, vol. 37, pp. 519-536, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11251-008-9073-6
Hariri A. R., S. Brown M., Williamson D. E., Flory J. D., de Wit H., and Manuck S. B., "Preference for immediate over delayed rewards is associated with magnitude of ventral striatal activity," The journal of Neuroscience, vol. 26, pp. 13213-13217, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3446-06.2006
Mischel W. and Grusec J., "Waiting for rewards and punishments: Effects of time and probability on choice," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 5, p. 24, 1967. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0024180
Magerko B., Heeter Fitzgerald C., J., and Medler B., "Intelligent adaptation of digital game-based learning," in Proceedings of the 2008 Conference on Future Play: Research, Play, Share, 2008, pp. 200-203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1496984.1497021
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Griffiths R. R., and Thompson T., "The post-reinforcement pause: A misnomer," The Psychological Record, 1973.
Pagulayan R. J., Keeker K., Wixon D., Romero R. L., and Fuller T., "User-centered design in games," The human-computer interaction handbook: fundamentals, evolving technologies and emerging applications, pp. 883-906, 2003.
Baddeley A., "Working memory," Science, vol. 255, pp. 556-559, January 31, 1992 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1736359
Miller G. A., "The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information," Psychological review, vol. 63, p. 81, 1956. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0043158
Malone T. W., "What makes things fun to learn? Heuristics for designing instructional computer games," in Proceedings of the 3rd ACM SIGSMALL symposium and the first SIGPC symposium on Small systems, 1980, pp. 162-169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/800088.802839
Hamari J., and Eranti V., "Framework for designing and evaluating game achievements," Proc. DiGRA 2011: Think Design Play, vol. 115, pp. 122-134, 2011.
Csikszentmihalyi M., Flow: HarperCollins, 1991.
Atkinson J. W., "Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior," Psychological review, vol. 64, p. 359, 1957.
Loftus G. R., and Loftus E. F., Mind at play: The psychology of video games vol. 14.
Hopson J., "Behavioral game design," Gamasutra, April, vol. 27, 2001.
Jablonsky S. F., and DeVries D. L., "Operant conditioning principles extrapolated to the theory of management", Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, vol. 7, pp. 340-358, 1972. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(72)90021-9
Wouters P., van der Spek E. D., and Van Oostendorp H., "Current practices in serious game research: A review from a learning outcomes perspective," Games-based learning advancements for multisensory human computer interfaces: techniques and effective practices, pp. 232-255, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-360-9.ch014
Graafland M., Schraagen J. M., and Schijven M. P., "Systematic review of serious games for medical education and surgical skills training," British Journal of Surgery, vol. 99, pp. 1322-1330, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.8819
Connolly T. M., Boyle E. A., MacArthur E., Hainey T., and Boyle J. M., "A systematic literature review of empirical evidence on computer games and serious games," Computers & Education, vol. 59, pp. 661-686, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.03.004
Kueider A. M., Parisi J. M., Gross A. L., and Rebok G. W., "Computerized Cognitive Training with Older Adults: A Systematic Review," PLoS ONE, vol. 7, p. e40588, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040588
Rego P., Moreira P. M., and Reis L. P., "Serious games for rehabilitation: A survey and a classification towards a taxonomy," in Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), 2010 5th Iberian Conference on, 2010, pp. 1-6.
Blunsdon B., Reed K., McNeil N., and McEachern S., "Experiential learning in social science theory: An investigation of the relationship between student enjoyment and learning," Higher education research and development, vol. 22, pp. 43-56, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.02.003
Gomez E. A., Wu D., and Passerini K., "Computer-supported team-based learning: The impact of motivation, enjoyment and team contributions on learning outcomes," Computers & Education, vol. 55, pp. 378-390, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0729436032000056544
Mitchell T. J., Chen S. Y., and Macredie R. D., "The relationship between web enjoyment and student perceptions and learning using a web?based tutorial," Learning, Media and Technology, vol. 30, pp. 27-40, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13581650500075546
Giannakos M. N., Chorianopoulos K., Jaccheri L., and Chrisochoides N., "“This Game Is Girly!” Perceived Enjoyment and Student Acceptance of Edutainment," in E-Learning and Games for Training, Education, Health and Sports, ed: Springer, 2012, pp. 89-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-33466-5_10
Bellotti F., Berta R., De Gloria A., and Primavera L., "Adaptive experience engine for serious games," Computational Intelligence and AI in Games, IEEE Transactions On, vol. 1, pp. 264-280, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TCIAIG.2009.2035923
Peirce N., Conlan O., and Wade V., "Adaptive educational games: Providing non-invasive personalised learning experiences," in Digital Games and Intelligent Toys Based Education, 2008 Second IEEE International Conference on, 2008, pp. 28-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/DIGITEL.2008.30
Westra J., Dignum F., and Dignum V., "Modeling agent adaptation in games," in BNAIC 2008 Belgian-Dutch Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 2008, p. 381.
Bin-Shyan J., Chien-Hung L., Yen-Teh H., Tsong-Wuu L., and Cheng-Yu L., "Using Game-Based Cooperative Learning to Improve Learning Motivation: A Study of Online Game Use in an Operating Systems Course," Education, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 56, pp. 183-190, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TE.2012.2207959
Suttie N., Louchart S., Lim T., and Ritchie J., "Towards a Biocybernetic Approach for Serious Games Real-time Psychophysiological Inferences for Adaptive Agents in Serious Games," Procedia Computer Science, vol. 15, pp. 316-317, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2012.10.092
Deci E. L., Koestner R., and Ryan R. M., "A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation," Psychological bulletin, vol. 125, p. 627, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627
Pierce W. D., Cameron J., K. Banko M., and So S., "Positive effects of rewards and performance standards on intrinsic motivation," The Psychological Record, vol. 53, p. 4, 2012.
Cameron J., Banko K. M., and Pierce W. D., "Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues," The Behavior Analyst, vol. 24, p. 1, 2001.
Eisenberger R., and Cameron J., "Detrimental effects of reward: Reality or myth?," American psychologist, vol. 51, p. 1153, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.11.1153
Wang H., and Sun C.-T., "Game reward Systems: gaming experiences and social meanings," Research Paper, Department of Computer Science, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan, 2011.
Reynolds G. S., "A primer of operant conditioning.(Rev ed)," 1975.
Chumbley J. and Griffiths M., "Affect and the computer game player: the effect of gender, personality, and game reinforcement structure on affective responses to computer game-play," CyberPsychology & Behavior, vol. 9, pp. 308-316, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.308
Charlton J. P., and Danforth I. D., "Distinguishing addiction and high engagement in the context of online game playing," Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 23, pp. 1531-1548, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.07.002
Siang A. C., and Rao R. K., "Theories of learning: a computer game perspective," in Multimedia Software Engineering, 2003. Proceedings. Fifth International Symposium on, 2003, pp. 239-245.
Yee N., "The psychology of massively multi-user online role-playing games: Motivations, emotional investment, relationships and problematic usage," in Avatars at work and play, ed: Springer, 2006, pp. 187-207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3898-4_9
Domínguez A., Saenz-de-Navarrete J., de-Marcos L., Fernández-Sanz L., Pagés C., and Martínez-Herráiz J.-J., "Gamifying learning experiences: Practical implications and outcomes," Computers & Education, vol. 63, pp. 380-392, 4// 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.12.020
Linehan C., Kirman B., Lawson S., and Chan G., "Practical, appropriate, empirically-validated guidelines for designing educational games," in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2011, pp. 1979-1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1978942.1979229
Charles D., Kerr A., McNeill M., McAlister M., Black M., Kcklich J., et al., "Player-centred game design: Player modelling and adaptive digital games," in Proceedings of the Digital Games Research Conference, 2005.
Fua K. C., Gupta S., Pautler D., and Farber I., "Designing serious games for elders," in 8th International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games, Chania, Crete, Greece, 2013.
Skinner B. F., Ferster C., and Ferster C. B., Schedules of reinforcement: Copley Publishing Group, 1997.
Bradshaw C. A. and Reed P., "Relationship between contingency awareness and human performance on random ratio and random interval schedules," Learning and Motivation, vol. 43, pp. 55-65, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2011.11.002
Howard-Jones P. A. and Demetriou S., "Uncertainty and engagement with learning games," Instructional Science, vol. 37, pp. 519-536, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11251-008-9073-6
Hariri A. R., S. Brown M., Williamson D. E., Flory J. D., de Wit H., and Manuck S. B., "Preference for immediate over delayed rewards is associated with magnitude of ventral striatal activity," The journal of Neuroscience, vol. 26, pp. 13213-13217, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3446-06.2006
Mischel W. and Grusec J., "Waiting for rewards and punishments: Effects of time and probability on choice," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 5, p. 24, 1967. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0024180
Magerko B., Heeter Fitzgerald C., J., and Medler B., "Intelligent adaptation of digital game-based learning," in Proceedings of the 2008 Conference on Future Play: Research, Play, Share, 2008, pp. 200-203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1496984.1497021
Göbel S., Hardy S., Wendel V., Mehm F., and Steinmetz R., "Serious games for health: personalized exergames," in Proceedings of the international conference on Multimedia, 2010, pp. 1663-1666. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1873951.1874316
Madeira R. N., Correia N., Guerra M., Postolache O., Dias A., and Postolache G., "Designing personalized therapeutic serious games for a pervasive assistive environment," in Serious Games and Applications for Health (SeGAH), 2011 IEEE 1st International Conference on, 2011, pp. 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/SeGAH.2011.6165465
Toppen J., "Effect of size and frequency of money reinforcement on human operant (work) behavior," Perceptual and motor skills, vol. 20, pp. 259-269, 1965. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1965.20.1.259
Tatham T. A., Wanchisen B. A., and Hineline P. N., "Effects of fixed and variable ratios on human behavioral variability," Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, vol. 59, pp. 349-359, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1993.59-349
Griffiths R. R., and Thompson T., "The post-reinforcement pause: A misnomer," The Psychological Record, 1973.
Pagulayan R. J., Keeker K., Wixon D., Romero R. L., and Fuller T., "User-centered design in games," The human-computer interaction handbook: fundamentals, evolving technologies and emerging applications, pp. 883-906, 2003.
Baddeley A., "Working memory," Science, vol. 255, pp. 556-559, January 31, 1992 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1736359
Miller G. A., "The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information," Psychological review, vol. 63, p. 81, 1956. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0043158
Malone T. W., "What makes things fun to learn? Heuristics for designing instructional computer games," in Proceedings of the 3rd ACM SIGSMALL symposium and the first SIGPC symposium on Small systems, 1980, pp. 162-169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/800088.802839
Hamari J., and Eranti V., "Framework for designing and evaluating game achievements," Proc. DiGRA 2011: Think Design Play, vol. 115, pp. 122-134, 2011.
Csikszentmihalyi M., Flow: HarperCollins, 1991.
Atkinson J. W., "Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior," Psychological review, vol. 64, p. 359, 1957.
Loftus G. R., and Loftus E. F., Mind at play: The psychology of video games vol. 14.
Hopson J., "Behavioral game design," Gamasutra, April, vol. 27, 2001.
Jablonsky S. F., and DeVries D. L., "Operant conditioning principles extrapolated to the theory of management", Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, vol. 7, pp. 340-358, 1972. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(72)90021-9
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The Use of Player-centered Positive Reinforcement to Schedule In-game Rewards Increases Enjoyment and Performance in a Serious Game. (2014). International Journal of Serious Games, 1(4). https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v1i4.47
